| schema:description 2 | "内容記述: Part 1. Forest Resources and Types: 1. Global Forest Resources: History and Dynamics, Jim B. Ball: 1.1. Historical perspective; 1.2. Recent estimates of global forest area: 1.2.1. Natural forests; 1.2.2. Forest plantations; 1.3. Changes in forest cover and condition: 1.3.1. Changes in forest cover; 1.3.2. Conversion of forests to other land cover; 1.3.3. Changes in forest condition; 1.4. Conclusions; 2. Forest Types and Classification, Ronald L. Hendrick: 2.1. Introduction; 2.2. Boreal forests: 2.2.1. Distribution and extent; 2.2.2. Climate; 2.2.3. Soils; 2.2.4. Dominant forest types; 2.2.5. Regional floras; 2.3. Tropical and subtropical forests: 2.3.1. Distribution and extent; 2.3.2. Climate; 2.3.3. Soils; 2.3.4. Dominant forest types; 2.3.5. Regional formations; 2.4. Temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests: 2.4.1. Distribution and extent; 2.4.2. Climate; 2.4.2. Soils; 2.4.4. Regional formations; 2.5. Savannahs and open woodland: 2.5.1. Distribution and extent; 2.5.2. Climate; 2.5.3. Soils; 2.5.4. Regional floras; 2.6. Mediterranean ecosystems: 2.6.1. Distribution and extent; 2.6.2. Climate; 2.6.3. Soils; 2.6.4. Regional floras; 2.7. Summary. Part 2. Biological and Ecological Processes: 3. Genetics and Speciation in the World's Forests, Gene Namkoong & Mathew P. Koshy: 3.1. Introduction; 3.2. The wealth of forest tree species: 3.2.1. Cladogenesis; 3.2.2. Selection; 3.2.3. Migration; 3.2.4. Chromosomal change; 3.2.5. Hybridization; 3.3. The wealth of populations; 3.4. The wealth of intrapopulation genetic variation; 3.5. Conclusions. 4. Structural Dynamics of Forest Stands and Natural Processes, George F. Peterken: 4.1. What counts as disturbance?; 4.2. Sources of disturbance: 4.2.1. Wind; 4.2.2. Fire; 4.2.3. Drought; 4.2.4. Biotic; 4.2.5. Water; 4.2.6. Ice; 4.2.7. Topography and landform; 4.3. Disturbance regimes; 4.4. Tree and shrub responses; 4.5. Forest structure and patterns; 4.6. Dead wood; 4.7. Dynamic pattern of forest composition: 4.7.1. Highly disturbed environments; 4.7.2. Relatively undisturbed environments; 4.7.3. Interactions and intermediate conditions; 4.7.4. Influence of people; 4.8. Stability, succession and climax; 4.9. People as agents of disturbance: 4.9.1. Seminatural disturbances; 4.9.2. Silvicultural systems; 4.9.3. Traditional cultures as part of nature. 5. Biological Interactions and Disturbance: Plants and Animals, Jaboury Ghazoul & Eunice A. Simmons: 5.1. Introduction. 5.2. Diversity and distribution of forest vertebrate resources: 5.2.1. Habitat structure and some generalities of vertebrate responses to resource variability; 5.2.2. Issues of scale; 5.3. Vertebrate richness and diversity in primary and disturbed forests: 5.3.1. Birds; 5.3.2. Mammals; 5.3.3. Amphibians; 5.3.4. Reptiles; 5.4. Vertebrate-mediated ecological processes and impacts of disturbance: 5.4.1. Pollination; 5.4.2. Seed predation; 5.4.3. Seed dispersal; 5.4.4. Herbivory; 5.5. Vertebrate invaders as mediators of change; 5.6. Economic value, hunting and tourism; 5.7. Conclusions. 6. Biological Interactions and Disturbance: Invertebrates, Hugh F. Evans: 6.1. Description of processes or characteristics: 6.1.1. Ecological attributes that determine the diversity and abundance of invertebrate species in forest ecosystems; 6.1.2. Geographical isolation as a critical factor in determining invertebrate diversity and implications for international movement of pest organisms; 6.2. Principles and dynamics that govern events and occurrence: 6.2.1. Interactions with the food plant: phytophagous invertebrates (herbivores); 6.2.2. Interactions between herbivores and their natural enemies; 6.3. Interactions with other processes, with scale and with forest type; 6.4. Factors influencing processes and opportunities for manipulation: 6.4.1. Forest fragmentation at local and landscape scales; 6.4.2. Forest disturbance as a factor in invertebrate dynamics; 6.5. Understanding the forest as a basis for management. Part 3. Environmental Interactions: 7. Forest Soils, Peter M. Attiwill & Christopher J. Weston: 7.1. Introduction: 7.1.1. Scope of this chapter; 7.2. Nutrient cycling in forests: 7.2.1. Soil chemistry and nutrient cycling; 7.2.2. Roots and the rhizosphere; 7.3. Litter and soil organic matter: 7.3.1. Litter and litter decomposition; 7.3.2. Carbon in forest soils; 7.4. Forest soils and acidic inputs: 7.4.1. Forest decline; 7.4.2. Nitrogen saturation; 7.5. Timber harvesting and sustainability: 7.5.1. Timber harvesting, nutrient removal and sustained productivity; 7.5.2. Timber harvesting, soil compaction and sustainability. 8. Ecophysiology of Forests, Richard H. Waring & Anthony R. Ludlow: 8.1. Introduction; 8.2. Responses of forests to variation in climate: 8.2.1. Determination of temperature optimum and limits; 8.2.2. Physiological definition of soils drought; 8.2.3. Sapwood as a water reservoir in trees; 8.2.4. Transpiration by forests; 8.3. Responses of forest to variation in nutrient availability; 8.3.1. Optimum nutrition; 8.3.2. Internal recycling of nutrients; 8.4. Carbon balance analyses: 8.4.1. Canopy photosynthesis; 8.4.2. Autotrophic respiration; 8.4.3. Net primary production; 8.4.4. Allocation of carbon resources; 8.5. Susceptibility of forests to herbivores and pathogens: 8.5.1. Biochemical and structural defenses; 8.5.2. Biochemical and allocation ratios; 8.6. Ecophysiological models of forest growth; 8.7. Summary. 9. Models for Pure and Mixed Forests, Hans Pretzsch: 9.1. Introduction; 9.2. Patterns and dynamics of growth: empirical observations: 9.2.1. Periodicity and pattern in individual tree growth; 9.2.2. Dynamics of stand growth; 9.2.3. Interventions and manipulations; 9.3. Growth models: 9.3.1. Stand growth models based on mean stand variables; 9.3.2. Stand-orientated management models predicting stem number frequency; 9.3.3. Single-tree orientated management models; 9.3.4. Ecophysiological growth models; 9.3.5. Gap models and biome shift models; 9.3.6. Hybrid models for forest management; 9.3.7. Management model SILVA 2.2 for pure and mixed stands. 10. Forests and the Atmosphere, Paul G. Jarvis & David G. Fowler: 10.1. Introduction: 10.1.1. Spatial and temporal scales; 10.1.2. Historical development; 10.1.3. The stand system; 10.2. Stand energy balance; 10.3. Radiation exchange: 10.3.1. Solar radiation albedo; 10.3.2. Long-wave radiation exchange; 10.3.3. Net all-wave tradition balance; 10.4. Momentum exchange; 10.5. Exchange of scalars: 10.5.1. Aerodynamic conductance/resistance; 10.5.2. Surface conductance/resistance; 10.6. Evaporation and transpiration: 10.6.1. Driving variables and constraints; 10.6.2. Evaporation of intercepted water; 10.6.3. Evaporation of transpired water; 10.6.4. Some conclusions; 10.7. Carbon dioxide exchange: 10.7.1. The policy imperative; 10.7.2. Forest as a carbon pump; 10.7.3. Dynamics of carbon dioxide exchange; 10.7.4. Net transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to forests; 10.7.5. Carbon balance components; 10.7.6. Future carbon sequestration potential; 10.8. Trace gases, aerosols and cloud droplets: 10.8.1. Acid gases: HCl, HNO?, HF; 10.8.2. Ammonia; 10.8.3. Sulphur dioxide; 10.8.4. Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide; 10.8.5. Ozone; 10.8.6. Aerosols and cloud droplets; 10.8.7. Diurnal and seasonal cycles; 10.9. Ecological effects of nitrogen deposition: 10.9.1. Nitrogen-stimulated carbon sequestration; 10.10. Forests and regional climates; 10.11. Conclusions. 11. Environmental Stresses to Forests, Peter H. Freer-Smith: 11.1. Introduction; 11.2. Climate; 11.3. Pollution: 11.3.1. Direct effects; 11.3.2. Indirect effects and soil acidification; 11.3.3. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide; 11.3.4. Nitrogen depositions; 11.4. Water deficit; 11.5. Soil conditions, nutrient deficiency/enrichment and soil degradation; 11.6. Conclusions. 12. Forest Hydrology, L.A.(Sampurno) Bruijnzeel: 12..1 Introduction; 12.2. Forest hydrological cycle; 12.3. Forests and 'occult' precipitation; 12.4. Throughfall, stemflow and interception loss: 12.4.1. Amounts and measurement of rainfall interception; 12.4.2. Litter interception; 12.4.3. interception modelling; 12.5. Transpiration: 12.5.1. Amounts and measurement of transpiration; 12.5.2. Transpiration modelling; 12.6. Total evapotranspiration; 12.7. Hydrological effects of forest manipulation: 12.7.1. Effects of forest thinning on rainfall interception; 12.7.2. Effects of thinning and selective logging on transpiration and water yield; 12.7.3. Effects of forest clearfelling on water yield;12.7. 4. Effects of converting natural forest to other land cover types on water yield; 12.7.5. Effects of forest clearing on streamflow regimes; 12.7.6. Hydrological effects of (re)forestation; 12.7.7. Modelling the hydrological impacts of forest manipulation and land-use change; 12.8. Outlook. Part 4. Social and Human Interface: 13. Trees in the Urban Environment, Kjell Nilsson, Thomas B. Randrup & Barbara M. Wand all: 13.1. Introduction; 13.2. Definitions; 13.3.Urban growing conditions: 13.3.1. Stress factors; 13.3.2. Characteristics and restriction of rooting in the built environment; 13.4. Urban characteristics/environment analysed; 13.5. Amenity values/benefits of urban forests and trees: 13.5.1. Economic impact; 13.5.2. Recreational use of green areas; 13.5.3. Psychological aspects; 13.5.4. Environmental education; 13.5.5. Community involvement; 13.6. Environmental aspects: 13.6.1. Local-scale climate; 13.6.2. Air quality; 13.6.3. Biodiversity; 13.6.4. Sustainable urban forests; 13.7. Threats to green areas: 13.7.1. Urbanization pressure; 13.7.2. Social factors; 13.7.3. Economic cuts; 13.8. Planning and management of urban green areas: 13.8.1. Green infrastructure planning; 13.8.2. Conflicts in management; 13.9. Conclusions. 14. The Importance of Social Values, Stephen Bass: 14.1. Sustainable forest management involves political and social processes; 14.2. Forests provide multiple social values; 14.3. The challenge of achieving security of forest values; 14.4. People's means to achieve security of forest values: 14.4.1. Traditional knowledge; 14.4.2. Rights; 14.5. Reasons for nurturing social values in commercial forest management; 14.6. Codes of practice and certification standards on social issues; 14.7. Conclusions. 15. Non-timber Forest Products and Rural Poverty: an Economic Analysis, William Cavendish: 15.1. Why non-timber forest products and rural poverty?; 15.2. Economic characteristics of rural households; 15.3. Value of NTFPs to rural households and the causes of NTFP use: 15.3.1. Evidence on rural households' use of NTFPs; 15.3.2. Economic underpinnings of rural households' extensive use of NTFPs; 15.4. Can rural development be based around NTFP's?: 15.4.1. The problem of preferences; 15.4.2. High transactions costs of trading; 15.4.3. Storage problems; 15.4.4. Production risk; 15.4.5. Open access and the costs of privatization; 15.4.6. Incentives for domestication and technical substitution; 15.5. Conclusions; Synthesis and conclusions....(more)" |