| schema:description | "内容記述: Introduction: Balance and flux; Methodology: Getting the information we need to manage living natural resources: The scientific method; Controlled experiments; Comparative studies; Simulations and models; Evaluating evidence with a critical eye; Part 1. Management to maximize production of featured species - a utilitarian approach to conservation: 1. Historical context - the commodification of resources and the foundations of utilitarian resource management: 1.1. Historical background; 1.2. The result: Habitat alteration, declines, and extinctions; 1.3. Diagnosing the problem; 1.4. The response to the problem: 1.4.1. Regulation and protection; 1.4.2. The disciplines of natural resource management; 2. Central concepts - population growth and interactions between populations: 2.1. Adding to and subtracting from populations; 2.2. Limits to population size: 2.2.1. Mortality; 2.2.2. Reproduction; 2.3. Types of population growth: 2.3.1. Exponential growth; 2.3.2. Logistic growth and density-dependent population regulation; 2.4. Interactions between populations: Predation: 2.4.1. Predation as a mechanism of limiting prey population; 2.4.2. Factors that compensate for predation; 2.4.3. Management implications; 3. Central concepts - habitats: 3.1. Ecosystem: 3.1.1. The Ecosystem concept; 3.1.2. Ecosystem components; 3.2. How habitats provide the resources needed by organisms; 3.2.1. Resources; 3.2.2. Juxtaposition of habitat patches; 3.2.3. Range of tolerance; 3.2.4. Seasonal variation in resource availability; 3.3. Changes in communities over time: Succession: 3.3.1. The concept; 3.3.2. Examples; 3.3.3. Implications; 4. Techniques - harvest management: 4.1. Classifying species on the basis of utilitarian values; 4.2. Kinds of harvest: 4.2.1. Commercial harvests; 4.2.2. Recreational harvests; 4.2.3. Subsistence harvests; 4.2.4. Illegal harvests; 4.3. Managing for sustained yield: 4.3.1. In theory; 4.3.2. In practice; 4.3.3. Social economic, and political considerations; 4.3.4. How successful has harvest management been?; 5. Techniques - habitat management: 5.1. Direct modification of plant communities: 5.1.1. Planting and fertilizing; 5.1.2. Removing unwanted vegetation; 5.1.3.Managing water supplies; 5.1.4. Providing special structures; 5.2. Indirect modification of habitats: Modifying succession: 5.2.1. Flooding; 5.2.2. Grazing management; 5.2.3. Logging; 5.2.4. Fire management; 5.3. Arranging habitat components; 5.4. Managing for multiple uses; 5.5. Conclusions; 6. Techniques - management to minimize conflicts between pest species and people: 6.1. What is a pest?; 6.2. How is damage from pests controlled?; 6.3. Historical background; 6.4. Case studies: 6.4.1. Coyote control in rangelands in the western U.S.A.; 6.4.2. Control of fox rabies in western Europe; 6.4.3. Human behavior and pigeon pests in urban environments; 6.4.4. Attacks by black bears and grizzly bears on visitors to U.S. national parks; 6.4.5. Elephants and crop damage in Africa; 6.5. Conclusions; Part II. Protection and restoration of populations and habitats - a preservationist approach to conservation: 7. Historical context - the rise of environmental concerns after World War II: 7.1. Economic and demographic changes; 7.2. Awareness of ecological problems: 7.2.1. Invading species; 7.2.2. Harmful substances in the environment; 7.2.3. Extinctions; 7.3. Diagnosing the problem; 7.4. The response to the problem: The rise of preservationist management; 8. Central concepts - the causes of extinction: 8.1. Speciation: The formation of species: 8.1.1. What is a species?;8.1.2. The theory of natural selection; 8.1.3. The tempo of speciation; 8.1.4. Adaptive radiation, isolation, and endemism; 8.2. How many species are there?; 8.3. Classification: 8.3.1. Nomenclature; 8.3.2. Genetic differentiation within species: Subspecies and local adaptation; 8.4. Extinction: 8.4.1. Extinction in the fossil record; 8.4.2. Why are some species more vulnerable than others?; 8.4.3. Why are some populations more vulnerable than others?; 8.4.4. Population viability analysis: A tool for assessing risk of extinction; 9. Techniques - protecting and restoring species: 9.1. Overview of options: Strategies for preventing extinction; 9.2. Decreasing losses: 9.2.1. Regulating exploitation; 9.2.2. Minimizing natural sources of mortality; 9.3. Enhancing the size and range of populations: 9.3.1. Increasing population productivity; 9.3.2. Increasing geographic range; 9.3.3. Guidelines; 9.4. Setting priorities: Which species should we try to save?; 10. Techniques - protecting and restoring ecosystems: 10.1. Historical background; 10.2. Projecting communities: 10.2.1. Designing reserves; 10.2.2. Setting priorities: Which habitats should we save?; 10.2.3. Managing reserves; 10.2.4. Providing economic incentives to set aside preserves: Debt-for-nature swaps: 10.3. Restoring communities: 10.3.1. The need for ecological restoration; 10.3.2. Methods of restoring ecosystems; 10.3.4. Mitigation; 10.3..5. Evaluating restoration and mitigation; Part III. Management to maintain processes and structures - a sustainable-ecosystem approach to conservation: 11. Historical context - pressures to move beyond protection of species and reserves: 11.1. Practical considerations; 11.2. Scientific considerations; 11.3. Political considerations: 11.3.1. Confrontations over the U.S. Endangered Species Act; 11.3.2. Changing directions in natural resource management; 11.4. Ethical considerations: 11.4.1. Who bears the costs of protection?; 11.4.2. Who makes decisions about access to resources?; 11.4.3. Who is responsible for causing the problem?; 11.4.4. Biodiversity versus cultural diversity?; 11.5. Philosophical considerations: 11.5.1. Attitudes about people and the natural world; 11.5.2. Defining biodiversity; 11.5.3. An alternative view; 11.6. Diagnosing the problem; 11.7. The response to the problem: the rise of sustainable-ecosystem management; 12. Central concepts - the flux of nature: 12.1. Revisiting equilibrium theories: 12.1.1. Competition and density-dependent population regulation; 12.1.2. The stable climax; 12.1.3. The equilibrium theory of island biogeography; 12.2. A new perspective: The flux of nature: 12.2.1. Background; 12.2.2. Key points; 12.2.3. Minimum condition for maintaining ecosystem functions; 12.3. Implication of the flux-of-nature viewpoint for conservation strategies; 12.4. conclusion; 13. Techniques - conserving processes and contexts; 13.1. Conserving processes; 13.2. Recognizing limits and assessing vulnerability: 13.2.1. Variations in ecosystem productivity; 13.2.2. Variations in soil fertility; 13.2.3. Variations in adaptations to disturbance; 13.3. Geographic context: 13.3.1.Maximizin potential for recovery from disturbance; 13.3.2. Maximizing movement of organisms through the matrix; 13.4. Examples: 13.4.1. Maintaining and restoring structures and functions of late-successional forests in the Sierra Nevada ecosystem; 13.4.2. Restoring structural heterogeneity in the Negev Desert; 13.4.3. Restoring variations in river flow on the Roanoke River; 14. Techniques - including people in the conservation process: 14.1. Sustainable use versus sustained yield; 14.2. Returning profits from biodiversity-based products to local communities; 14.3. Integrating economic development and conservation; 14.4. Basing resource management in local communities; 14.5. Locating reserves in a compatible landscape: 14.5.1. Integrating traditional resource uses and conservation: Biosphere reserves; 14.5.2. Developing alternative resource uses: Nontimber forest products; 14.6. Evaluating attempts to include people in the conservation process; 14.7. 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