| schema:description | "内容記述: 1. Changes in the Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere and Potential Impacts1.1 Introduction1.1.1 Atmospheric Chemistry and Life on Earth1.1.2 Environmental Issues and Atomospheric Chemistry1.1.3 The Atmosphere in the Earth System1.2 Global Atmospheric Chemistry and the IGAC Project1.3 Past Changes in Atmospheric Chemical Composition1.3.1 Long-Term Variability: Evidence of Feedbacks1.3.2 Changing Atmospheric Composition During the Last Few Centuries1.3.3 Future Changes in Atmospheric Composition1.4 Causes of Atmospheric Changes1.4.1 FossilFuel Combustion and Industry1.4.2 Biomass Burning1.4.3 Land-Use Changes1.4.4 Climate Chages1.5 Imapcts of Changes in Atmospheric Composition 1.5.1 Climate Change 1.5.2 Impacts on Ecosystems1.5.3 Corrosion1.5.4 Health Effects1.6 Some Important Questions2. Biosphere-Atmosphere Interaction2.1 Introduction2.2 Key Biogenic Gases or Families and their Relevance to Atmospheric Chemistry2.2.1 The Carbon Family of Gases: CH4,Volatile Organic Carbon Compounds ( VOCs ), and Carbon Monoxide ( CO )2.2.2 The Nitrogen Family of Gases: Ammonia ( NH3 ), N2o andNO2.2.3 The Sulphur Family: Dimethylsulphide and Carbonyl Sulphide2.3 A Paleoclimatic Perspective on CH4 and DMS2.4 Atmospheric Compounds as Nutrients or Toxins2.5 Approaches for Studying Exchange2.6 Terrestrial Highlights2.6.1 Exchange of Trace Gases and Aerosols from Terrestrial Ecosystems2.7 Background: Emissions and Deposition2.7.1 Production and Consumption of CH42.7.2 Biomass Burning2.7.3 Wet Deposition in the Tropics2.8 Marine Highlights2.8.1 Air-Water Gas Exchange Parmaeterisation2.8.2 Marine Biogenic Emissions: A Few Examples2.8.3 Biological and Chemical Impacts of Atmospheric Deposition on Marine and Estuarine Systems2.9 Summary of Achievements and Remaining Research Challenges3. Atmosheric Photooxidants3.1 Introduction3.1.1 Background3.1.2 Chapter Structure3.2 Ozone Precursors3.2.1 Introduction3.2.2 Primary Emissions of Ozone Precursors3.2.3 Global Distribution of Ozone Precursors3.3 Photochemistry in the Troposhere3.3.1 Background3.3.2 IGAC Activities Related to Testing the Theory of HOx Photochemistry3.3.3 Measurements of Total Peroxy Radicals ( HO2 + RO2 )3.3.4 Measurements of Ozone and Peroxide Climatologies in Clean Air3.3.5 Reactive Nitrogen Chemistry3.3.6 The Role of Troposheric Chimistry in the Production of Particulate Matter iin the Troposphere3.3.7 Moddelling of Radecal Chemistry nd Ozone Production and Loss3.3.8 Progress in Modelling the Global Budget of OH3.3.9 Night Time Free Radical Chemistry - No33.3.10 Halogen Chemistry in the Troposphere3.4 Transport and Mixing Processes3.4.1 Boundary Layer Mixing and Exchange3.4.2 Convection3.4.3 Synoptic Scale Tranport3.4.4 Stratosphere-Troposphere Exchange3.5 A Climatology of Tropospheric Ozone3.5.1 Factors Controlling the Global Distribution of Ozone3.5.2 Global Measurements of Ozone and Sonde Data3.6 Long-Range Transport of Pollution and Impact on the Ozone Budget3.6.1 Introduction3.6.2 Continental Pollution3.6.3 North Atlantic Ocean Field Campaigns3.6.4 Pcific Ocean Field Campaigns3.6.5 Studies of Aircraft Emissions3.7 Summary of Principal Achievements and Remaining Uncertainties3.7.1 Achievements3.7.2 Uncertainties4. Tropospheric Aerosols4.1 Introduction4.2 Integrated View of the PresentState of Knowledge of Atmospheric Aerosols4.2.1 Space-Borne Measurements4.2.2 In situ Measurements4.2.3 Process Understanding4.2.4 Large-Scale Aerosol Models4.3 Selected Recent Developments4.3.1 Primary Emissions4.3.2 Emissions of Particle Precusors4.3.3 Formation,Evolution,and Removal of Condensed Material4.3.4 Effects of the Aersol on Radiation in the Atmosphere4.3.5 Effects of Aerosols on Atmospheric Photochemistry4.3.6 Aerosols and Health4.4 Research Approaches4.4.1 In situ Observations with Intensive Campaigns4.4.2 In situ Observations Using Long-Term Monitoring Networks4.4.3 Remote Sensing of Aerosols4.4.4 Aerosol Modelling 4.5 Highlights and Remaining Challenges4.5.1 Characterisation of the Atmospheric Aerosol4.5.2 Formation and Growth of Particulate Matter4.5.3 Aerosol-Cloud Interactions4.5.4 Modelling Chanllenges5. Advances in Laboratory and Field Measurements5.1 Introduction5.2 Laboratory Studies5.2.1 Recent Advances5.2.2 Future Needs5.2.3 Summary5.3 Field Measurements: Gas Phase5.3.1 Recent Advances5.3.2 Techniques for the Measurement of Isotopes5.3.3 Use of Lidar on Airborne Chemistry Missions5.3.4 Flux Measurements5.3.5 Instrument Intercomparisons5.3.6 Future Needs5.4 Field measurements: Aerosols5.4.1 Chemical Analysis of Aerosol Samples5.4.2 Particle Number Concentraiton5.4.3 Number Size Distribution5.4.4 Optical Properties5.4.5 Hygroscopicity5.4.6 Aerosol Deposition Fluxes5.4.7 Issues in Aerosol Sampling 5.4.8 Summary of Future Needs5.5 Satellite Instruments for Troposphiric Chemistry5.5.1 Introduction5.5.2 Recent Advances5.5.3 Future Trends5.5.4 Summary5.6 Long-Term Measurements5.6.1 Introduction5.6.2 Global Networks5.6.3 Summary and Future Trends5.7 Summary and Conclusion6. Modelling 6.1 Introduction6.2 Types of Models6.3 Model Components6.3.1 Treatment of Large-Scale Transport6.3.2 Representation of Chemical Processes6.3.3 Input to Chemistry-Transport Models6.4 Model Evaluation6.4.1 Comparisons with Observations6.4.2 Model Intercomparisons6.5 Model Applications6.5.1 Evolution of the Composition of the Troposphere6.5.2 Use of Photochmical Models for Supporting Field Campaigns6.5.3 Climate Assessments6.6 Current Developments and Future Challenges6.6.1 Further Development of Current CTMs6.6.2 Chemical Data Assimilation6.6.3 Inverse Modelling6.6.4 Dynamic Aerosol Modelling6.6.5 Nesting-Variable Resolution6.6.6 Cloud-Resolving Chemical Models6.6.7 Coupled Earth System Models7. An Integrated View of the Causes and Impacts of Atmospheric Changes7.1 Introduction7.2 What Determines the Chemical CVomposition of the Atmosphere?7.3 How Have Human Activities Altered Atmosphiric Composition?7.4 How Have Human Activities Changed the Global Atmospheric Budgets of Carbon,Nitrogen,and Sulphur?7.5 What Controls,Tropospheric Ozone?7.6 Is the Cleansing Efficincyh " of the Atmosphere Changing?7.7 How Does Atmospheric Chemistry Affect the Biosphere and Food Production?7.7.1 Impact on Terrestrial and Marine Ecosystems7.7.2 Direct Effects7.7.3 Earth System Feedbacks7.7.4 Imapacts on Agricultural Production Systems7.8 How Does Atmospheric Chemistry Affect Human Health?7.9 What is the Connection between Atmospheric Composition and Climate?7.10 How Might Chemical Composition Evolve in the Future?7.11 Are There Risks of ABrupt Changes and / or Irreversible Changes in Atmospheric Composition?7.12 What Should the Research Strategy Be to Address Unresolved Questions?"...(more)" |